Introducing Qutrussan

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Davush
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Re: Introducing Qutrussan

Post by Davush »

(Edit: Scripts delayed till later date, sorry!)
Davush
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Re: Introducing Qutrussan

Post by Davush »

I have been working on the diachronics of Qutrussan so I don't have to go back and change a load of words down the line. It's been a bit tedious, but I think it gives a richer history to it and allows for interesting dialectal stuff. So without further ado...
(also: flag! with due thanks to Thrice for some advice and inspiration [:D])

Proto-QQ to Classical Qutrussan: The Development of the Stop Series

(I am using Proto-QQ as the name for now because it spawned Qutrussan spoken by the Qútur tribe, and Qashrussan, spoken by the Qáshar tribe, but I should come up with something better. Proto-Qútur-Qáshar sounds a bit ridiculous for some reason.)

Qutrussan has a simple unvoiced-voiced distinction in its stop series, but its history and ancestral form is more complex. The following is a brief account of how Qutrussan has inherited its current plosives.

/p t k/
/b d g/
/q/


/q/ is an outlier and is considered by Qutrussan grammarians to have 'intermediate voicing' as it is often voiced or partially voiced, closer to /ɢ/.

Note that although /ts dz/ pattern as stops, they are not included here as they arise from diachronically quite different sources.

Proto-Qutrussic is believed to have had a three-way distinction in its stops: plain, aspirated and ejective. There is also a geminate series which is sometimes included.

*/p t k/
*/pʰ tʰ kʰ/
*/p' t' k'/
(*/pp tt kk/)


Spirantization of Aspirates
One of the earliest changes was likely the fricativization of the aspirated series in all positions, with the plain series then gaining mild aspiration, perhaps due to pressure to remain distinct from the ejective series, which were being increasingly realized as plain or geminate stops.

/p t k/
/pʰ tʰ kʰ/ > /ɸ θ χ/
/p' t' k'/

At this point, /χ/ was likely still distinct from the already existing /ħ/.

Voicing of Ejectives
Perhaps motivated by the gain of aspiration on the previous plain series, the ejectives increasingly become realized as voiced geminates between vowels. This appears to be a period of relative instability, and unexpected outcomes can be explained by early borrowings from neighbouring dialects. It is also believed that *k' begins to back at this period, giving rise to early instances of /q/, particularly near back vowels.

The ejective series of this period can be described as:

/p'~bb t'~dd/
/q~gg~qq/ with word medial *k' showing instability between /gg/ and /qq/, giving Classical Qutrussan some couplets.

*tak'a > taqqa, tagga

The Plain Series
The plain series begin to voice and lengthen after a pretonic vowel in some dialects:

/p~b t~d k~g/ *atára > *ᵊddára > dara (ǝdára in some Northern dialects).

This change spread rapidly in Qutrus with concurrent loss of the pretonic vowel, leaving behind a series of plain voiced stops. Some peripheral Northern dialects retain a trace of the initial vowel.

It should be noted that Northern dialects often have a a single voiced consonant as a reflex of the plain series between vowels. It is unclear exactly when this began to appear, but it appears to be incomplete perhaps due to pressure from the Qutrus dialect growing in prestige status. Interestingly, the related language Qashrussan has taken this change further, with the plain series regularly becoming voiced fricatives.

*kata > kata (Qutrus) kada (Northern regions) kað (Qashrussan)

The loss of unstressed medial vowels created a new set of clusters from the plain series, with various clusters being resolved in different ways. Notably only /pt kt/ are permitted, the others resolve as geminates of the second consonant.

*kátapa > ?katᵊpa > kappa
*mákata > ?makᵊta > makta

Fixing of *k' and *kʰ
It is assumed that *k' had resolved into /q-qq/ by this point, with /gg/ being a dialectal realization. /χ/ from earlier *kʰ also merged with pre-existing /ħ/ at a relatively early stage. The Northern dialects maintain the distinction.

Post-Tonice Syllables
In the case of post-tonic syllabes in words of three or more syllables, where a cluster or geminate prevented the vowel from eliding, the plain series also begin to voice, perhaps under a similar rule to the pre-tonic voicing. This change appears incomplete, and there are often competing forms. Until this point all inter-vocalic voiced stops had been geminate and an 'informal' rule operational throughout the sound change history has been to geminate all voiced stops in all positions. Although the standard orthography indicates a single voiced stop, the majority would realize either a plain unvoiced stop, or a voiced geminate.

*ħákkata > written <haccada> but more often realized ħákkadda or ħákkata

Clusters: *sC *ʕC
Clusters of *sC and *ʕC were fairly common in proto-Qutrussic and have all but disappeared from Classical Qutrussan. The elimination of *sC clusters can be considered a very early change, operating around the same time as the fricatvization. They largely resolve into a plain series, strengthening the voiceless realization, with the deletion of /s/ leaving a long vowel:

*naska > ?naʰka > na:ka

Some Northern dialects have a geminate as a reflex:

*naska > nakka

*ʕC clusters show two main developments: one is identical to that of ejectives (>voiced geminates), another is the lengthening of the previous vowel. It is assumed that the latter development was an earlier innovation which lost out to *ʕC merging with the ejectives. *ʕk shows variance in becoming /qq/ and /gg/, giving further evidence to support *ʕC merging with ejectives at an early stage. There was also a particular Northern change where was devoiced before stops, which has been borrowed in several items into Qutrussan.

*saʕba > sa:bba
*neʕten > niddin
*roʕtos > ruħtus ( ?ru:ddus would be the expected outcome)
*reʕki > ri:ggi

Other Minor Changes
There were also some minor changes which occurred such as the voicing of the plain series before /w/ (later /ʋ/).

*pw > bʋ > v
*tw > dʋ > dv
*kw > gʋ > gv

In addition, earlier also fortifies to /g/-/gg/ word-initially and inter-vocalically.

/mb nd ŋg/ in Classical Qutrussan derive from post-tonic voicing and loss of a medial vowel. *mp nt ŋk remain as they are.

*rámapas > ?ramᵊbas > rámbas
*ɔpónkɔ > ?ᵊbbúnkʌ > búnkǝ

This summary largely accounts for the development of the Qutrussan stop series in its current state.

(Also: If anybody spots anything as particularly unrealistic/unlikely/incongruent please do say so!)
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Thrice Xandvii
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Re: Introducing Qutrussan

Post by Thrice Xandvii »

Davush wrote: 24 Dec 2017 11:07 (also: flag! with due thanks to Thrice for some advice and inspiration [:D])
'Twas my pleasure. Glad I could help out in some small way.
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Re: Introducing Qutrussan

Post by Davush »

Proto-Qutrussic Stress and its Implications

Proto-Qutrussic almost certainly had lexical stress. That said, word-initial stress was the most common.
*káta
*paráː
*k’árɛːna
*pátoŋo


Word-finally, long vowels only appear stressed:
?páraː
*paráː


Classical Qutrussan, however, has developed a system of predictable weight-based stress whereby the first long vowel or closed syllable in a word receives stress.

Bisyllabic words with initial stress show no change:
*káta > káta

Trisyllabic words, however, regularly undergo syncope of the medial vowel, resulting in a plethora of clusters.

*rámapas > *rámᵊpas > rámbas
*mɔkɔrɔ > mɔkᵊrɔ > məkrə

If a cluster would not be permitted, the Central dialects generally geminate the consonant of the second syllable. The medial vowel was generally reduced. These clusters are largely stop + nasal clusters.

*rákono > ?rákᵊnu > rákkənu
*pátoŋo > ?pátᵊgu > páttugu

In some instances, the medial vowel does not reduce. Northern dialects undergo a slightly different process, whereby the stress is shifted onto the second syllable, and the consonant of the third syllable is geminated. This also often leaves a voiced consonant, as an extension of the pre-tonic voicing rule. Qutrussan has borrowed several words which have undergone the northern change.

*rákono > rakónno > ragúnnu

In bisyllabic words which end in a stressed long vowel, the initial vowel is elided where this would produce a permissible cluster:
*paráː > praː
*sɔjó: > sjuː

Words of 3 or more syllables ending in a long vowel are rare, and the initial syllable receives secondary stress, with elision of the second vowel.

*ˌŋa.pa.ˈraː > ˌga.pᵊraː > gapráː


Trisyllabic words in which the medial syllable is stressed also undergo reduction, with the initial vowel beging elided or reduced.

*taráːwa > tᵊráːva > traːva

If a resulting cluster would violate the sonority hierarchy, an epenthetic echo vowel is inserted before the cluster, this is generally the same vowel as that of the stressed syllable.

*k’ɔsóːmo > qᵊsuːmu > qsuːmu
*ħɔtóppo > ħᵊtúppu > uħtúppu

The switch to a weight-based stress system appears to have occurred relatively recently in Qutrussan, and indeed northern dialects often still maintain word-initial stress where Classical Qutrussan would have stress elsewhere.

*k’árɛːna > qarɛ́ːna (long vowel receives stress)
*kʰóroŋ > ħurún (closed syllable receives stress)

Both above words are stressed on the initial syllable in northern varities: gárɛːna, χúrun.

It appears that with this change, the reduction rules are no longer in operation, as the full quality of the vowel is generally retained. Some have posited that the reduction rules are still operating in the colloquial language, with forms such as ?qərɛ́ːna ?ħərún being heard, but these are considered non-standard.
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Re: Introducing Qutrussan

Post by Davush »

A translation of a few lines from a random Spanish poem...

Há sarau haini, laithcamubba,
cón tsúna, tíril rá ṛhímnaḥ tsá,
zallia, cón ăn tsúsnam, róqarmi tsunúḥ?


/haː saˈɾau ˈħaini ˈlaiθkamubba/
/koːn ˈt͡suːna ˈtiːɾil ɾaː əħˈħiːmnaɦ t͡saː/
/ˈd͡zalliːə koːn ən ˈt͡suːsnam ˈɾoːqaɾmi t͡suˈnuːɦ/

VOC clear.PL eye.PL calm.PL-also
2pl.GEN appearance, sweet from PASS.praise.3sg if,
why, 2pl.GEN 1.ACC look.GER.LOC, anger.LOC look-NP-3pl

Ojos claros, serenos,
si de un dulce mirar sois alabados,
por qué, si me miráis, miráis airados?
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Re: Introducing Qutrussan

Post by Davush »

Conjunctions and Complement clauses

Yau
Yau is used to connect nouns. It usually only appears between the nouns connected, but can appear after both nouns in more archaic language.

tsél yau parraq (yau) 'the tree and the fruit'

Vai...Vai
Means 'both...and...'. It must be repeated.

tsél vai parar vai 'both the tree and the fruit'

It can be used to connect to clauses:

lálan-vai traqan-vai 'I (both) sing and dance'


Means 'or'. It can optionally be repeated.

tsél mó parraq (mó) 'the tree or the fruit'

When used to mean 'either/or' it can optionally be móvai repeated.

tsél móvai parraq móvai '(either) the tree or the fruit'

Gĭm

Means 'with' - usually only used with animate nouns.

máhar gĭm qadzi 'the mother and the child'

Tă-
Tă- is used to connect clauses meaning '...and then...' and is inflected to agree in person and number with the verb that precedes it.

állan tăn átrăqan
'I sang and (then) I danced'
állar tăr átrăqar 'You sang and (then) you danced'

Mai
Is used to mean 'but'. It can appear after a plain verb or after the subjunctive. After the subjunctive, the meaning indicates a greater level of doubt.

lálanmai, cá traqar 'I sing, but you dance'
lálandammai, cá traqar 'I (might) sing, but you dance'

It can also be used to soften negatives.

dăn lálanmai 'I won't sing (but...)

-Mi (Locative case)
Can be used on verbal-nouns to indicate 'when' or 'if' in a more general sense.

căn lálănmi, thai traqan
when you sing, I shall dance (i.e. at your singing, I shall dance)

Complements Clauses
Generally indicated by using the subjunctive affix -da. Qutrussan is primarily SOV, so the main verb appears at the end in more formal speech. If the verb would be the copula used with an adjective, often a plain adjective can appear.

lálanda íthmin 'I said I would sing' (I sing-SUBJ I said)
hós qaphah 'He thinks it is good' (good he-thinks)
thai citishda nim ṛqubbuh 'I know he will come' (will come-SUBJ I-know)

I am having the most difficulty with complement clauses as Qutrussan makes quite a lot of use of nominalised verbs, I feel that this would also become a strategy.

I.e. 'I know he will come' > 'his coming.ACC I-Know' > shăn cícta nim ṛqubbuh

I also want a more colloquial strategy which tends towards SVO, i.e. the matrix verb appears first, but I'm not sure how to mark the complement clause.

íthmih (???) lálah 'he said (that) he would sing'
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Re: Introducing Qutrussan

Post by Davush »

Well, it's been a while but here is a very minor update! Hopefully I will eventually reach the stage where I can compile all this into one coherent document...

Modality in Qutrussan

Modal/Auxiliary verbs in Qutrussan operate similar to serial verbs in that both the modal verb and main verb are inflected. Modal verbs follow the main verb. I was initially going to the make the main verb appear with the subjunctive/conjunctive suffix -da, but I like the simplicity of just having two consecutive verbs. Some common modal verbs are:

tá- to want to (non-past)
tass- to want to (past)
óm- to hope to
qĭdd- to be able to
hví- to know how to

curun I go
curun tán I want to go (go.NONPAST.1 want.NONPAST.1)

lálah He/She sings
lálah hvíh He/She knows how to sing

In the standard language, only the modal verb inflects for past tense, with the main verb remaining in the non-past:

curun tassan I wanted to go
lálah íhvih He/She knew how to sing

However it is common to hear both verbs in the past:

úcrŭn tassan I wanted to go
állăh íhvih He/She knew how to sing

The impersonal passive is commonly used in certain constructions:

tá- to want
ṛtáh to be wanted, i.e. 'should'

raz- to require
ĭrrazah to be required, i.e. 'must'

néq- to prohibit
ṛnéqah to be prohibited i.e. 'must not'

căn cúcŭr ṛtáh you should go (your going is wanted)
shăn cígit ĭrrazah he must come (his coming is required)
căn zúrli cúcŭr ṛnéqah you must not go to the mountain (your going to the mountain is prohibited)
/kən dzuːɾli kuːkəɾ ənnɛːqaɦ/

In the spoken language, the past participle is often used with an inflected verb:

curuc ṛtáyaq (yah) 'you should go' (you-go wanted COP)
/kuˈɾuk ətˈtaːjaq/

curuc ṛnéqĭq
/kuˈɾuk ənˈnɛːqəq/

I like this colloquial strategy, but I somehow feel it doesn't fit with Qutrussan's overall structure which strongly prefers conjugated verbs to appear phrase-finally.

Some Orthography Updates

I was considering deleting the schwa because I don't really like the sound of stressed schwa (I suppose it could be /ɨ~ɯ/ when stressed, but everyone seems to like it and I admit it is more interesting than a boring /a e i o u/ system, so I will keep it.

Proto-Qutrussan allowed r- and l- initial clusters, these merged into r- clusters in old Qutrussan. In Classical Qutrussan they are now realized as /əC/ with gemination of following consonant, but the orthography uses <ṛ>: ṛpana /əpˈpana/ etc.

Old Qutrussan allowed word-final /ts/ this is now realised as /s/ in Classical Qutrussan but written <ṣ> as /ts/ resurfaces with suffixes: <maṣ - matsu>

Proto-Qutrussan had /ŋ/ permissible in all positions. This mostly becomes /g/ by Classical Qutrussan but /n/ word-finally leading to /n~g/ alteration in some cases. /n/ from /ŋ/ is spelled <ṇ>: <luaṇ - luaggu>

/x/ and /ħ/ have merged into /ħ/ written <h> but I am still considering having earlier /x/ written as <x> giving pairs like: xóra - hora /ħɔːɾa/.
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Re: Introducing Qutrussan

Post by Davush »

Some boring pronoun stuff...

The system of pronouns in Qutrussan is quite regular/symmetrical, almost verging on Esperanto style symmetry but I think this fits the aesthetics of the language. I don't want a complicated system where the forms are all quite different and unpredictable.

Pronouns - Tsillairuq

Qutrussan pronouns inflect for the usual 5 cases. There is no gender distinction in the 3rd person. The pronouns also have reflexive, emphatic and reduced forms. Dialectal variants are also common and will be noted.

1st Person Singular

Nom: na, n'
Acc: ăn, 'n
Gen I: năn
Dat: nil
Loc: nim

2nd Person Singular

Nom: ca, c'
Acc: ăc, 'c
Gen: căn
Dat: cil
Loc: cim

3rd Person Singular

Nom: sha, sh'
Acc: ăsh, 'sh
Gen: shăn
Dat: shil
Loc: shim

1st Person Plural

Nom: nuvu
Acc: uan, nu
Gen: nón
Dat: núl
Loc: núm

2nd Person Plural

Nom: cuvu
Acc: uac, cu
Gen: cón
Dat: cúl
Loc: cúm

3rd Person Plural

Nom: shuvu
Acc: uash, shu
Gen: shón
Dat: shúl
Loc: shúm

S-Genitive Pronouns
The pronouns also have an S-genitive which alternates with the traditional genitive. The s-genitive is perhaps more common in the spoken language.

1sg asna
2sg asca
3sg sa
1pl usnu
2pl uscu
3pl su

Emphatic Pronouns
The emphatic pronouns have a variety of uses. They are generally used when a pronoun appears independently, is emphasised or placed in a position of focus. The emphatic forms do not inflect for case. The standard nominative forms often follow the emphatic pronouns without much change in meaning. If case is necessary, the standard form will be inflected.

1sg năyá (na)
2sg căyá (ca)
3sg shăyá (sha)
1pl nŭyú (nuvu~nu)
2pl cŭyú (cuvu~cu)
3pl shŭyú (shuvu~cu)

Năyá zúrli úcrun
/nəˈjaː ˈdzuːɾli ˈuːkɾun/
1sg.EMP 1sg.NOM mountain-DAT PAST.go-1sg
I am the one who went to the mountain

Shăyá sha c'áhtsaccai?
/ʃəˈjaː ʃa ˈkaːħtsakkai/
3sg.EMP ~ 2sg PAST.take-2sg.INT
Is this the one you took?

Zil xaddína ácsar? Shăyá shil
/dzil ħaddiːna aːksaɾ/ /ʃeˈjaː ʃil/
who.DAT gift.ACC give.PAST-2sg 3sg.EMP 3sg.DAT
Who did you give the gift to? To her

Reduced Pronouns

The accusative forms are often reduced, particularly when occuring with a nominative pronoun. When this occurs, the nominative forms have a lengthened vowel. The nominative forms may also lose the final if used directly before a verb beginning with a vowel.

1sg n
2sg c
3sg sh
1pl nu
2pl cu
3pl shu

Cá'sh útsnuccai?
/kaːʃ uːtsnukkai/
2sg.NOM-3sg.ACC PAST.see.2sg.INT
Did you see him?

Nuvú-cu íthmunnu
/nuvuːku iːθmunnu/
1pl.NOM-2pl.ACC PAST-speak-1pl
We spoke to you (pl.)

N'úcrun
/nuːkɾun/
1sg.NOM PAST.go-1sg
I went

Reflexive Pronouns
There is a separate set of pronouns when used reflexively or reciprocally. They can also be used vocatively. The nominative and accusatve forms are identical, but they can be inflected for other cases.

1sg hánna
2sg hácca, hácra
3sg hássha
1pl húnnu
2pl húccu, húcru
3pl hússhu

(Na) hánna yammam útsnun
/na ħaːnna jaːmmam uːtsnun/
1sg.NOM 1sg.REF PAST.see-1sg
I saw myself in the water

Zallia ca háccal thivímic?
/dzalliːə ka ħaːkkal θiviːmik/
why 2sg.NOM 2sg.REF.DAT speak-2sg
Why are you talking to yourself?

Variant Forms


The 1st person shows little variant across dialects.

The 2nd person has an alternate form with r- instead of c-, possibly under influence of a 2nd person marker on verbs which is -r. This is especially common in the accusative forms or where -c would be a word final consonant, i.e. ná'c > ná'r, nuvua'c > nuvua'r, etc.

The 3rd person often alternate in a form beginning with h-, particularly in the singular. This is common in most dialects and is perhaps even more common than the sh- forms in the spoken language.

Há'n (shá'n) ádăqsah
/ħaːn aːdəqsaħ/
3sg.NOM-1sg.ACC PAST-hit-3sg
He/She hit me

The nominative plural forms show quite a lot of divergence across dialects. Common variants are:

nuvu: nauvu, nuav, nuayu. núnu
cuvu: cauvu, cuav, cuayu, cúru
shuvu: shauvu, shuav, shuayu, shúhu
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Re: Introducing Qutrussan

Post by Davush »

It's been nice to be able to do some conlanging recently. I've been thinking about a few things in Qutrussan, notably stress and its effects. My initial idea for Qutrussan was that it wouldn't become too morphologically or phonologically complex, so I'm still trying to stick to that principle while making it interesting to not just become a robotic "add affix ad nauseam".

Anyway, until now, in CV.CVC syllables, the final closed syllable has attracted stress:

phalas /fa.ˈlas/
hitsal /ħi.ˈtsal/

However, I am thinking of changing these word types to word-initial stress. They are relatively rare in nominal roots, but common in non-past verb forms. The accusative ending is generally -a, but some monosyllabic words lengthen their vowel for the accusative:

/paɾ/ > /paːɾ/
etc.

I am thinking about taking this further, and having CV.CVC nouns have a change of stress, with the accusative having stress on the final syllable giving some interesting irregularities due to other phonological constraints. This gives the impression of the vestige of an ancient process related to stress or lengthening or something.


nom: /ˈfa.las/
acc: */fa.ˈlas/ > /fɾas/ (/Cl/ sequences generally not allowed)

The process probably went: /ˈpʰa.las/ > a-accusative with stress change > /pʰa.ˈla.sa/ > sound changes > /ˈpʰɾa.sa/ > /fɾas/.

nom: /ˈħi.tsal/
acc: /əħ.ˈtsal/ (initial /ħC/ gains epenthetic vowel)

nom: /ˈnu.ħum/
acc: /nə.ˈħuːm/ (/nħ/ sequence not allowed, stressed vowel gains compensatory lengthening)

This would essentially give a set of irregular accusative - the sound change process are probably too many and obscure for it to be considered an active process. Perhaps some lesser used CV.CVC words will succumb to the regular a-accusative:

/ˈdzi.ɾis/ > /ˈdziɾ.sa/ instead of irregular */dzɾis/

I don't know whether I want to the have the final vowel lengthened in all instances as well. One the one hand, lengthening it would be in. line with the monosyllables, but on the other hand, Qutrussan is already full of long vowels.

par > pár
phalas > phrás / phras
hitsal > ĭhtsál / ĭhtsal
etc.

(Looks like I've unintentionally added a (very limited) Semitic type root alteration...Oh well, this language was inspired after all by a 'lost IE-lang gets isolated in Arabia' type of feel...!)
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Re: Introducing Qutrussan

Post by ixals »

I thought I'd leave a short comment just so you know that I'm still reading all of your posts here and that I definitely enjoy them [:D]
Davush wrote: 25 Mar 2018 17:33 (Looks like I've unintentionally added a (very limited) Semitic type root alteration...Oh well, this language was inspired after all by a 'lost IE-lang gets isolated in Arabia' type of feel...!)
That was also my first thought after seeing "hitsal vs. ĭhtsál" for example! [:D]
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Re: Introducing Qutrussan

Post by Davush »

ixals wrote: 25 Mar 2018 18:17 I thought I'd leave a short comment just so you know that I'm still reading all of your posts here and that I definitely enjoy them [:D]
Davush wrote: 25 Mar 2018 17:33 (Looks like I've unintentionally added a (very limited) Semitic type root alteration...Oh well, this language was inspired after all by a 'lost IE-lang gets isolated in Arabia' type of feel...!)
That was also my first thought after seeing "hitsal vs. ĭhtsál" for example! [:D]
Thanks ixals! I appreciate your comment and I'm glad to hear you are enjoying the posts. [:)]
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Re: Introducing Qutrussan

Post by Davush »

Refining the Case System (and some other stuff)

I have played around with the Qutrussan case system quite a bit, but the original idea of: Nom, Acc, Gen, Dat, Loc is still present. I've made slight changes here and there which helps thinking about the diachronics behind it as well.

The main point of change is how I'm going to represent the accusative. In the Proto-Language, there was certainly something going on with lengthening/glottalization/stress shift which has left its trace. In Old Qutrussan (on which the orthography is based), glottal stops were allowed before a final consonant, spelled <ḥ>, this now lengthens the preceding vowel.

So nom: par /paɾ/ acc: paḥr /paːɾ/ (I was just going to use <pár> but I quite like this orthographical quirk).

The Classical Qutrussan diphthongs /iːə uːə/ <ia ua> arise from a variety of sources in the PL, including *iːʔ *uːʔ. In most cases they occur in stressed syllables. When unstressed, they follow Old Qutrussan spelling indicating a glottal stop, i.e. /iʔ uʔ/ spelled <iḥ uḥ>. In Classical Qutrussan, many dialects still preserve these are somewhat glottalised shorter forms of /iːə uːə/.

This is relevant for the case system as the accusative plurals in /aː iːə uːə/ are now spelled <aḥ iḥ uḥ> reflecting the presence of an early glottal stop.

mandas > mandasaḥ /ˈmandasaː/
tséra > tséraḥ /ˈtseːraː/
cutsu > cutsuḥ /kuˈtsuːə/
nósshi > nósshiḥ /ˈnoːʃʃiː/

Nominative plurals of i and u stem vowels are now: -au and -ai with lengthening of final consonant if applicable.
cutsu > cuttsau /ˈkutsu ˈkuttsau/
nósshi > nósshai /ˈnɔːʃʃi ˈnɔːʃʃai/

The genitive singular was -nă or -Că in the previous iteration. I didn't like the look of how often -nă was coming up, so I have changed it slightly. The ending is now -aṇ or -ṇ with <ṇ> reflecting an early /ŋ/. Some dialects might preserve this or have nasalization. The plural is still regular -yóṇ, but now with under-dot.

mandas > mandasaṇ /ˈmandasan/ etc.
tséra > tséraṇ
cutsu > cutsuṇ

The dative and locative singulars have changed slightly. Originally they were unchanging -li and -mi. This made me question whether they should be in the case system, or just plain postpositions. Deciding I want them to be in the case system, I have made them more bound. They are now -Cəl and -Cəm where the orthography of /ə/ reflects the earlier distinction made by an echo vowel. A-final stems have /a/. The plural forms are still -Vvli / -Vvmi

mandas > mandassam /ˈmandassam/
shisshim > shisshimmĭm /ˈʃiʃʃimməm/
tsógur > tsógurŭm /ˈtsɔːgurəm/ (/r/ doesn't geminate)

Example Inflection of <mandas> 'temple'

mandas - mandassá
mandassa - mandasaḥ
mandasaṇ - mandasyóṇ
mandassam - mlandasavmi
mandassal - mandasavli


Some postpositions stuff

I hate making pre-postpositions, so the dative and locative cases have a wide application of use. The dative can be used to convey 'to', 'movement towards', 'for (a recipient)', and the locative can cover any stationary movement in, at, or on something. Pre/postpositions are so fiddly and dull, but appear so often that it's important that I like them (which I never do, so this part will probably change a million times).

There is a category of 'True Postpositions':

ninnu - from (used with nominative or locative)
liḥ - for (used with dative)
phá - with, by, using (used with accusative)
gim - together with (used with nominative)
s- - this is the only preposition in the language, and its origins are obscure. Possibly the survival of an ancient form or a borrowing? It forms genitive-like phrases, or means 'from', 'belonging to'. It never indicates movement from.

Qutrus ninnu / Qutrussŭm ninnu - from Qutrus
paralliḥ - for (the benefit of) the man (paral-liḥ)
hurcăḥ phá - with the stone /ħuɾkəffaː/
qaddzi gim - with the child
s-Qutrus - from Qutrus (i.e. a person from Qutrus)

There is a case to be made that some of these have become true cases in their own right, i.e. phá is often realised as simply /f/ following an accusative stem: hurca > hurcăḥ > hurcăph and ninnu may become -nin: Qutrusnin.

Other prepositions are considered Deverbal Prepositions as they appear to be derived from verbs, perhaps from an older participle or nominalised form. The nouns they govern take the case of the source verb. Some of the verbs original meanings are lost to time, others are still in use.

sŭnn- to follow: sŭnná 'in front of'
pal- to precede: balá 'behind'
bilz- to be opposite: bilzá 'opposite'
hadd- to take: haddá 'using, with'
lahc- to stick: lahcá 'right against'
vacc- to separate: vaggá 'apart from'

Phew! I won't be doing that again any time soon.
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Re: Introducing Qutrussan

Post by Davush »

Some Random Things
A limited form of reduplication occurs in nominals. It has mostly become lexicalized, but in general indicates 'all, every' of the base noun, or 'a large group of'.
This form of reduplication is no longer productive, and the rules behind it are obscured. It generally only appears with monosyllabic words, and is especially common with time words. Nonetheless, it generally takes the form of BASE-á-BASE, where <á> can be <á é ó>, and the reduplicated base often has the initial consonant voiced or other minor changes.

cal person
calággal every one

day
vŭyóvŭ every day

par man
paróbbar every man (this now means citizens in Qutrus i.e. Qutrusaṇ paróbbar - Citizens of Qutrus)

*vats time (this now only appears as <vastat>
vatsávaṣ all the time, always, often

thar land
tharóttar all the lands, every nation, earth

*lur place (this now only appears as a common derivational suffix)
luróllur every where

tĭr instrument, machine
tĭréddĭr everything (often <tréddĭr>)

Syntax Test Sentences
I've decided to try and translate that list of sentences which supposedly tests your language's syntax. I'll do 10 or so each post, and note anything interesting or new things.

1. The sun shines: Shiar tinish /ʃiːər tiniʃ/
2. The sun is shining: Shiar tinish
Note: There is no distinction between present and present-progressive.

3. The sun shone: Shiar ítĭnash.

4. The sun will shine: Shiar thai tinish. <thai> can be used to express the future, but is also used for assertion. Often the plain non-past is used.

5. The sun has been shining.
There are several ways to translate this. One way is to use the gerund + yar- 'to do'. This emphasizes the imperfect nature.
Shiar títĭn yaraḥ: The sun was/has been shining.
If the sun is no longer shining, the plain past can be used:Shiar ítĭnash. Or, an adverb such as <xattal> 'until now' can be used with the non-past:
Shiar xattal tinish.

6. The sun is shining again. Shiar títĭn dantah
This also uses a periphrastic construct with the gerund + 'dant-' 'to return'.

7. The sun will shine tomorrow. Shiar pór (thai) tinish.
Again no specific future marker is required. Thai is optional and adds a nuance of 'will surely'.

8. The sun shines brightly.
An adverb meaning 'brightly' or similar could be used, but a more idiomatic translation would be to use the intensive form of tin-: tiníqqin-. The intensive is used to convey a more intense meaning of the inherent quality of the base verb. To tin- to shine, tiníqqin- 'to really shine' i.e. 'to shine brightly'. So: Shiar tiníqqinish

9. The bright sun shines. Shiril shiar tinish
'bright' and 'white' are the same word.

10. The sun is rising now. Shiar qaim cillásh.
Qaim meaning 'at this moment'. Alternatively: Itta shiar cillásh where itta introduces a clause conveying new information.

High vs Low Qutrussan
I thought it might be fun to think about the difference between 'standard' classical Qutrussan and low Qutrussan of the capital.

Some differences are. 3p. -sh becomes /ħ/ or a non-syllabic /ɐ/ (or completely elided). This is common across the Qutrussan speaking regions.

Classical Qutrussan > Low Qutrussan of the Capital
/ʃiːəɾ tiniʃ/ > /ʃiːəɾ tiniɐ/

/aːi aːu/ > /ɛː ɔː/ or /ɑː/ in closed syllables.

Shiar thai tinish > /ʃiːəɾ θɛː tiniɐ/

/ħ/ is always strongly pharyngeal, unlike other dialects where it varies between /x-χ-ħ-h-ɦ/.

/k g/ are strongly palatilized before /i iː ɛː/
Shiar qaim cillásh > /ʃiːəɾ qɑːm cçəllaː/

Pre-tonic /i u/ often > /ə/

Shiar tiníqqinish > /ʃiːəɾ təniːqqiniɐ/
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Re: Introducing Qutrussan

Post by Davush »

(Edit: Script being left aside for now, will update if I ever manage to produce something I like.)
Last edited by Davush on 30 Aug 2018 22:47, edited 1 time in total.
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Re: Introducing Qutrussan

Post by gestaltist »

Very nice, King Davush ;)
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Re: Introducing Qutrussan

Post by Davush »

Qutrussan Naming Practices

Qutrussan names are essentially derived from "root names" - these names are largely words relating to nature, personal characteristics and hopes or ambitions. There are also several names of which the etymology is uncertain. Some are likely loanwords which entered the language in an early stage whose meaning is now lost. Names are traditionally unisex, although certain names tend to be associated more with either males or females.

Several words are now archaic in ordinary use but continue to be used for names. Many are also derivations from a root word.

Some common root names:

Qūt /quːt/ etymology uncertain, possibly eastwards/dawn. The mythological first ruler of Qutrus

Thana /θana/ desert. more feminine. The mythological wife of Qūt.

Tharas /θaɾas/ eagle, more masculine

Hitsal /ħitsal/ flower, more feminine

Gĭyēr /gəjeːɾ/ long winter, unisex. Aug. of gir "winter"

Shŭyōra /ʃəjoːra/ long summer, unisex Aug. of shōra "summer"

Hiaṇ /ħiːən/ fragrant, more feminine

Durru /durru/ strength, wealth, unisex

Dāvush /daːvuʃ/ poetic, literary. unisex.

Many of the roots, especially monosyllables, are combined with other roots to form new names. Although there is a limited pool of root names, these can be combined more or less freely.

Hiangir / Yangir Fragrant winter
Durrutharas Strong eagle
Thanallusa Desert beauty

Patronymics and Matronymics

For formal names, Qutrus has relatively strict rules regarding names. The choice of a name takes into consideration parents' names, sex of child, and birth order.

1st born:
1st born sons take a matronymic, most commonly in the form of the suffix -urru (son of) with their mothers name.

Thana >Thanurru (1st born son of Thana)

Similarly, 1st born daughters take a patronymic, with the suffix -aina (daughter of).

Qūt > Qūtaina (1st born daughter of Qūt)

2nd born:
2nd borns take a diminutive form of their same sex parent. The exact suffix has some variability depending on region.

Qūt > Qūtush
Thaina > Thanalli

1st born and 2nd born children also usually took a second name, which could be any of the root names. E.g. Thanurru Hianshōra (First born son of Thana, fragrant summer).

3rd and later born:
There is more freedom for third born children who may use any of the root names, plus the genitive form of their same-sex parent, which may also be shămār (of his/her mother) and shăpār (of his/her father) - presumably from shăn māhar and shăn pāhar.

Qūt > Tharas-Qūtaṇ The eagle of Qūt
or Tharas-shăpār The eagle of his father

Thana > Shōra-Thanaṇ The winter of Thana
or Shōra-shămār The winter of her mother

Parents were also regularly called after the name of their first born in informal situations (I.e. within the extended family).

Thanurrupar - The father of the first born son of Thana
Qūtainamar - The mother of the first born daughter of Qūt

When naming a child, 1st and 2nd borns pass down their second or informal name. An example of a family tree:

Qūt m. to Thana
child: Thanurru Tharas First born son of Thana, the Eagle
grand-child: Tharasaina First born daughter of (Thanurru) Tharas

Within the family and in informal situations, the patro/matronymic suffix is often dropped and a diminutive suffix added. -sh is the most common masculine dim. suffixed and -lli the feminine, but there is considerable variation.

Thanurru > Thanash (little Thana, masc.)
Qūtaina > Qūtuzzu (little Qūt, fem.)

During the first few centuries after Qūt and Thana, fixed surnames did not exist, and epithets were commonly used to identify people.

During the reign of Dāvush, formal surnames became required and naming practice across Qutrus was standardized.
I also want to include some sort of ritual name or names which come from religion.

To be updated...
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Re: Introducing Qutrussan

Post by Davush »

Qutrussan Verbs Update II

Slowly working towards a verbal system which I'm happy with. I realised I had far too many competing forms which I wasn't keeping track of well, so here is an overview of the main morphological tense/aspect forms of verbs in Qutrussan.

The basic dictionary form of the verb is the unchanged stem. E.g. ZAL- 'to eat'. All TAM stems are made from these basic stems. Verbs are generally either consonantal or vocal, the main difference being that consonantal stems require a thematic vowel in most cases.

Qutrussan verbs are, on the whole, quite regular. There are only 3 main tense/aspects which are marked morphologically: Non-past, Past, Remote Past.

The Non Past (NP)

Consonantal Stems
The non-past is formed from the stem by the addition of a thematic vowel and the personal endings. The thematic vowel is always an echo vowel of the final syllable of the stem.

Note that long vowels are shortened when thematic in the singular form.
In the plural form, the thematic vowel is lengthened giving two non-past stems to which the pronominal suffixes are added: singular and plural.

Stem: ZAL- 'to eat'
NP Sg: zala-
NP Pl: zalā-

Stem: SUP- 'to drink'
NP Sg: supu-
NP Pl: supū-

Stem: PHĒTR- 'to sit'
NP Sg: phētrĭ- (Note: -ē shortens to -ĭ)
NP Pl: phētrē-


The pronominal suffixes are:
1sg. -n
1pl. -nnu

2sg. -c / -r
2pl. -ccu / -ru

3sg. -sh / -h
3pl. -sshu / -hu

The 2nd person has two alternate forms: one with <c> and one with <r>. Both are considered correct, although different regions may show preference for one over the other.

The 3rd person also has two alternate forms: one with <sh> and one with <h>. The form with <h> is now more common, especially in the singular, with <sh> forms being regarded as slightly archaic.

Example Conjugation of Consonantal Stem:

ZAL- 'to eat'
zalan, zalar, zalah
zalānnu, zalāccu, zalāsshu


PHĒTR- 'to sit'
phētrĭn, phētrĭr, phētrĭh
phētrēnnu, phētrēccu, phētrēsshu



Vocal Stems
As vocal stems already contain a final vowel, no thematic vowel is required. The final vowel is lengthened before the pronominal suffixes in the singular. The plural form changes the final vowel before suffixes: -a > -ō, -i > -ē, -u > -ō.

sagva- > sagvā- / sagvō-
supsi- > supsī- / supsē-
zaḥmu- > zaḥmū- / zaḥmō-

Example conjugation of vocal stem:

SAGVA- 'to live'
sagvān, sagvār, sagvāh
sagvōnnu, sagvōccu, sagvōsshu


SUPSI- 'to pour'
supsīn, supsīr, supsīh
supsēnnu, supsēccu, supsēsshu


Other Updates
I have changed the orthography somewhat. Long vowels are now marked by a macron rather than an acute. <ḥ> is now reserved for when it appears before another consonant. Word final /s/ which is underlying /ts/ is spelt <ṣ> finally. I am also thinking of reintroducing the now non-existent /ʕ/ into the orthography as <ġ>, which is preserved in some dialects and sister languages but absent in Qutrussan. This would give things like <ġēca> /jeːka/, <valġar> /vallar/, <ġōs> /oːs/, etc.

There may also be limited voicing of initial unvoiced stops after certain unstressed particles. This is because initial voiced vowels were originally the result of unvoiced stops voicing before an unstressed short vowel. This feature will become more widespread in one of Qutrussan's descendants. I.e. pāhar (father), na-bbāhar (my father), curuh (he goes) a-gguruh (the...who goes), etc.
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Re: Introducing Qutrussan

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The Past Tenses
There are two past tenses in Qutrussan: The simple past and the remote past. Both are formed from the augmented verb stem which is characterised by the prefixing of a long vowel. The simple past also undergoes syncope or reduction of the initial stem vowel.

Similar to the non-past, verbs can be either consonantal or vocal stems. There are also several suppletive past stems which conjugate as if they were non-past.

Consonantal Stems
The prefixed vowel is the same quality as the vowel of the first syllable but lengthened. Diphthongs <ai au> have <ē ō> as the prefix, <ia ua> have <ī ū> as the prefix.

Simple Stem / Augmented Stem

zal- āzal-
sup- ūsup-
cit- īcit-
ciar- īciar-


Vocal Stems
The majority of vocal stems end in -va, -ya, -ti, -si, and -mu. Instead of prefixing the lengthened vowel directly to the front of the stem, the lengthened vowel in vocal stems occurs before the above suffixes, leading to an infix. This is most likely a remnant of their history as older independent verbs which appear to have had a causative or transitivising function.

The vocal suffixes are lengthened as thus:
-va > -āva
-ya > -ēya
-ti > -īti
-si > -ēsi
-mu > -ōmu


sagva- saggāva-
supsi- supēsi-
zahmu- zahōmu-


Suppletive Stems
There are a number of verbs which have a distinct past tense stem. These suppletive past-tense stems are conjugated as if they were non-past. Many show an alternation between the final consonant in the non-past stem with -ss- in the past

hōn- hōss- 'to want'
qan- qass- 'to cause'

The Simple Past
In addition to the prefix, the simple past stem also undergoes reduction before the addition of a thematic vowel and pronominal suffixes. If the resulting cluster is permissible, the stem vowel is elided entirely. If the resulting cluster is not permissible, the vowel reduces. The thematic vowel is the same as that for the non-past forms, but remains short in both the singular and plural forms.

Note that <ai au ia ua> do not elide at all in many verbs. When elision does not take place, the final consonant is geminated before the thematic vowel. Verbs in which the diphthongs do elide are highlighted in the lexicon. These tend to be common monosyllabic stems.

The following shows: Non-past Stem, Augmented Stem, Augmented Stem with Reduction and Thematic Vowel:

zal- āzal- āzla-
sup- ūsup- ūspu-
cit- īcit- īcti-
ciar- īciar- īcri- (elision takes place)
tuas- ūtuas- ūtuassu- (elision does not take place)


Example Conjugations in the Simple Past:

āzlan, āzlac, āzlash, āzlannu, āzlaccu, āzlasshu
ūtuassun, ūtuassuc, ūtuassush, ūtuassunnu, ūtuassuccu, ūtuassusshu


The Remote Past
The remote past is formed by the addition of the suffix -ta to the past stem which does not undergo reduction. Pronominal suffixes are then added to the -ta suffix. Vocal stems lose their final vowel before the addition of -ta.

Stem / Augmented Stem / Remote Past Stem
zal- āzal- āzalta-
sup- ūsup- ūsupta-
sagva- saggāva- saggāvta-
supsi- supēsi- supēsta-



Example Conjugation:
āzaltan, āzaltac, āzaltash āzaltannu, āzaltaccu, āzaltasshu
supēstan, supēstac, supēstash supēstannu, supēstaccu, supēstasshu


There is an alternative dialectal plural form for the remote past which has -tōnnu, -tōccu (-tōru) -tōsshu (-tōhu) for the plural forms.


Example Conjugation of ZAL- 'to eat' in all 3 tenses with all pronominal suffixes:

Non-Past:
zalan
zalac ~ zalar
zalash ~ zalah
zalānnu
zalāccu ~ zalāru
zalāsshu ~ zalāhu

Past:
āzlan
āzlac ~ āzlar
āzlash ~ āzlah
āzlannu
āzlaccu ~ āzlaru
āzlasshu ~ āzlahu

Remote Past:
āzaltan
āzaltac ~ āzaltar
āzaltash ~ āzaltah
āzaltannu
āzaltaccu ~ āzaltaru
āzaltasshu ~ āzaltahu



...Phew!
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Re: Introducing Qutrussan

Post by Davush »

The Verbal Noun
The verbal noun, or the gerund, is much more frequently used in Qutrussan than English, appearing in many constructions.

It is characterised by the reduplication and lengthening of the initial syllable, with reduction of the first stem vowel.

Example:

cur- go
cūcŭr to go, going

sup- drink
sūsŭp to drink, drinking

The vowels are lengthened in the usual manner:
a > ā
i > ī
u > ū
ĭ > ē
ŭ > ō

<i u> reduce to <ĭ, ŭ>. <a> does not reduce.

Several other changes take place depending on the initial consonant of stem.
If the initial consonant is an aspirate or voiced stop, it becomes a geminate unvoiced stop in the stem.

phētr- to sit
phēppĭtĭr to sit, sitting (not *phēphĭtĭr)

thagg- to kill
thāttaṇ to kill, killing (not *thāthaṇ)

daqs- to hit
dāttaqas to hit, hitting (not *dādaqas)

If the initial consonant is <ts>, it becomes <ss> in the stem.

tsun- to see
tsūssŭn to see, seeing

If the initial consonant is <q>, it becomes <gg> in the stem.

qubb- to know
qūggŭp to know, knowing

If the initial consonant is <z>, it becomes <y> when reduplicated. Many speakers have analogised this to fit the usual patter. Forms with <y> are considered more correct.

zal- to eat
yāzzal OR zāzzal to eat, eating

If the stem contains an initial cluster, the initial syllable is reduplicated with the cluster, but the stem removes the initial consonant of the cluster.

csir- cut
csīsĭr to cut, cutting (not *csīcsĭr)

Stems with an initial long vowel shorten.
ā > a
ī > i
ū > u
ē > ĭ
ō > ŭ

tsēph- hunt
tsēssĭph to hunt, hunting

Stems with a diphthong do not reduce the diphthong. The reduplicated syllable is formed thus:

ai > ā
au > ā
ia > ī
ua > ū

nuan- sleep
nūnuan to sleep, sleeping (not *nuanuan)

The verbal noun may then be inflected as any other nominal. It is commonly used with the locative case to mean 'when...'. The subject of a verbal noun takes the genitive case, although in informal speech the nominative may be used.

naṇ cūcrum...
'when I went' (i.e. at my going...)

paraṇ tsĭbbēġ dāttaqsam...
'when the man hit the dog' (i.e. at the man's hitting of the dog)

It is also often used in complement clauses:

mēnaṇ cīciġt ūtsnun
'I saw the woman arrive' (i.e. I saw the arriving of the woman)

shaṇ zūrli cūcuġr nim ṛqubbuh
'I know that he went to the mountain' (i.e. I know of his going to the mountain)

yammaṇ sūsuġp hōnun
'I want to drink water' (i.e. I want the drinking of water)

The verbal noun does not usually occur in the plural, although it may be used in some idiomatic expressions.

cūcru cīcti
comings and goings
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Re: Introducing Qutrussan

Post by Ahzoh »

Looking good as usual. Unrelatedly I always pronounce the name like "cute Russian"
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